Least Restrictive Environment Coalition

The benefits of learning in the LRE for children with special needs can be great: increased motivation, higher self-esteem, improved communication and socialization skills, and greater academic achievement. While some children with disabilities will require a special class, the LRE for most will be in a general education class with appropriate supports and services an inclusion class. Children with disabilities in inclusion classrooms, particularly in their home school, tend to form friendships more readily and develop better social skills, especially if teachers promote interaction. Exposure to the general education curriculum, taught by teachers trained in that curriculum, gives the disabled child the chance to aim for the same goals as everyone else, and results in higher academic achievement than the lower expectations often applied in a self-contained special education class. Nor are the children with disabilities the only ones to benefit from their inclusion in general education classes. Rather than being disadvantaged by being in an inclusion classroom, children without disabilities who are educated alongside their disabled peers generally have a greater awareness of diversity, act more responsibly, and demonstrate improved academic performance.[1]

Communication and Social Interaction: numerous studies have shown that students with and without disabilities interact more frequently in integrated and inclusive settings than in self-contained environments. [2] This is true for pre-school [3] , elementary school [4] , and secondary settings [5] . Increased social interaction can lead to social competence and communication skills. Studies show improvement in the area of social skills and communication to be associated with participation in an inclusive educational program. [6] Anecdotal evidence from New York City inclusion programs confirms that non-disabled peers provide role models for more socially acceptable behavior, also that being a fully included member of a general education class increases self-esteem. Students with disabilities in inclusive settings have been shown to develop a greater circle of nondisabled friends than those in self-contained classrooms that offer less social interaction with students without disabilities, [7] especially when the school the student is attending is close to his home. [8] A more diverse social life for disabled and non-disabled children alike is valuable in itself, but also because of the social and cognitive development it promotes in both.

Academic Skill Acquisition for Students with Mild Disabilities: Studies of students with mild disabilities placed in the general classroom report increased academic skill acquisition to varying degrees. [9] There are program models in which substantial gains were found, [10] and models in which gains were shown in some, but not all, curriculum areas [11] or for some, but not all, students. [12] The small groups associated with cooperative learning and with peer tutoring were associated with academic benefits for students with and without disabilities in a variety of curriculum areas. [13] For example, in one study all students (regular, remedial and special education) in an inclusive school (in comparison to a non-inclusive control school) demonstrated significantly superior gains in several areas, including reading, vocabulary and language. [14]

Academic Skill Acquisition for Students with More Severe Disabilities: Studies have reported that students with more severe disabilities who take part in general education classes show some academic increases and behavioral and social progress. [15] Parents have reported that their children with more severe disabilities, placed in general education classrooms, were able to learn material from the general education curriculum. [16] The model of instruction matters; studies show that small, cooperative learning groups in which a student with severe disabilities is a member with nondisabled peers best supports these students engagement and learning. [17] In a study that focused on programs meeting selected criteria for best practices and models for teacher training, students with severe disabilities made much greater progress in the general education classrooms as compared with their peers in special education classrooms. [18]

The Importance of Curriculum: In addition to the model of instruction, the curriculum used in the inclusive classroom is an important factor in the educational success of all students. It should give all students, regardless of their abilities, the opportunity to become involved with and progress in the general education curriculum. It should be designed with the flexibility to be presented in different ways for different learners, available in materials accessible to all students, and allow for different levels of complexity for the differently-abled. [19]

Educational Impact: Parents of students without disabilities want to know whether their childs learning will suffer, and whether he/she will receive less attention from the teacher in an inclusive classroom. In a well-run inclusion class, research indicates they neednt worry. [20] A study comparing the teachers use of time in classrooms with and without students with more severe disabilities found no negative impact on instruction. [21] In fact, in general education classrooms including students with mild disabilities, research demonstrates that the academic success of students without disabilities is actually increased. [22] Researchers suggest that the instructional practices used in inclusion classrooms, which reflect the expertise of both general and special educators, benefit all the students in the class. [23] For example, as stated above, learning in small instructional groups has been found to be associated with academic benefits for students with and without disabilities in a variety of curriculum areas. [24] Even in small instructional groups including a severely disabled student, the students without disabilities performed as well as their peers in groups not including a disabled member. [25]

Effect on Development and Behavior: Research of typically developing children show that their development does not slow as a result of being in a classroom with children with disabilities. [26] Nor do typically developing students adopt the inappropriate behavior of some students with disabilities in their inclusive elementary classroom. [27] In fact, the rest of the class has much to gain from including people with disabilities. Studies have found that students in inclusive classrooms have positive experiences with their disabled peers and develop improved attitudes towards those with different abilities. [28] Teachers report that accommodation of disabled students in inclusion classes naturally gives rise to conversations about fairness and equity that enhance the values and social skills of all students. [29] Surveys of non-disabled students educated in inclusion classrooms reported improvement in self-concept and reduced fear of human differences. [30] These results were confirmed by other surveys of parents reports of their childrens outcomes in inclusion classes. [31]

Upon examination, the relatively few studies that found poor results for students in inclusion classrooms mostly involved students placed in general education classrooms without proper supports [32] or special education services. [33] Therefore, they are not inconsistent with the research reported above showing gains to students both with and without disabilities in inclusion classrooms with prepared teachers, adequate supports and effective instructional techniques.

The research demonstrates that being educated in an inclusive classroom benefits all students in the class. Their social growth is enhanced and the typical students academic progress is not slowed and will even be promoted in a good inclusion class. With a prepared teacher, a well-designed, student-centered curriculum and the use of effective instructional models, all students in the class will have the opportunity to learn and achieve. Future inquiry should focus not on whether to do inclusion, but how to do it well.

[1] For summaries of the research, see Moore, C. & Gilbreath, D. (1998) Educating students with disabilities in general education classrooms: A summary of the research. Western Regional Resource Center, http://interact.uoregon.edu/wrrc/AKInclusion.html; and The United States Department of Educations 21^st Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (April, 2000) III-21 III-27, http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP/Research/OSEP99AnlRpt/.

[2] E.g.: Brinker, R.P. (1985). Interactions between severely mentally retarded students and other students in integrated and segregated public school settings. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89, 587 594; Fryxell, D. & Kennedy, C.H. (1995). Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students social relationships. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 259 269.

[3] Hanline, M.F. (1993). Inclusion of preschoolers with profound disabilities: An analysis of childrens interactions. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 18, 28 35; Jenkins, J.R., Odom, S.L. & Speltz, M.L. (1989). Effects of social integration on preschool children with handicaps. Exceptional Children, 55, 420 428.

[4] Cole, D.A. & Meyer, L.H. (1991). Social integration and severe disabilities: a longitudinal analysis of child outcomes. Journal of Special Education, 25, 340 351.

[5] Kennedy, C.H., Shukla, S., & Fryxell, D. (1997). Comparing the effects of educational placement on the social relationships of intermediate school students with severe disabilities, Exceptional Children, 64, 31 48; McDonnell, J., Hardman, M., Hightower, J, & Kiefer-ODonnell, R. (1991). Variables associated with in-school and after-school integration of secondary students with severe disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 26, 243 257.

[6] Studies of parent reports of their childrens development: see Bennett, T., DeLuca, D.,& Bruns, D. (1997). Putting inclusion into practice: Perspective of teachers and parents. Exceptional Children, 64, 115 131, and Guralnick, M.J., Connor, R.T., & Hammond, M. (1995). Parent perspectives of peer relationships and friendships in integrated and specialized programs. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 99, 457 476. Non-comparison studies in inclusive classrooms: see Hunt, P., Alwell, M., Farron-Davis, F., & Goetz, L. (1996). Creating socially supportive environments for fully included students who experience multiple disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 21, 53 71; and Hunt, P., Staub, D., Alwell, M., & Goetz, L. (1994). Achievement by all students within the context of cooperative learning groups. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 290 301.

[7] Fryxell, D., & Kennedy, C.H. (1995). Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students social relationships. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 259 269; Kennedy, C.H., Shukla, S., & Fryxell, D. (1997), op. cit.

[8] McDonnell, Hardman, Hightower, & Kiefer-ODonnell (1991), op. cit. at footnote 5.

[9] Fishbaugh, M.S., & Gum, P. (1994). Inclusive education in Billings, MT: A prototype for rural schools. ERIC Reproduction Service, No. ED 369636.

[10] E.g., Wang, M.C., & Birch, J.W. (1984). Comparison of a full-time mainstreaming program and a resource room approach. Exceptional Children, 51, 33 40.

[11] E.g., Affleck, J., Madge, S., Adams, A., & Lowenbraun, S. (1988). Integrated classroom versus resource model: Academic viability and effectiveness. Exceptional Children, 54, 339 348.

[12] E.g., Manset, G., & Semmel, M.I. (1997). Are inclusive programs for students with mild disabilities effective? A comparative review of model programs. The Journal of Special Education, 31, 2, 155 180, and Zigmond, N., & Baker, J.M. (1990). Mainstreaming experiences for learning disabled students (Project MELD): Preliminary report. Exceptional Children, 57, 176 185.

[13] Lew, M., Mesch, D., Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R. (1986). Components of cooperative learning: Effects of collaborative skills and academic group contingencies on achievement and mainstreaming. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 229 239; Maheady, L., Sacca, M.K., & Harper, G.F. (1987). Class wide student tutoring teams: Effects on the academic performance of secondary students. Journal of Special Education, 12, 107 121.

[14] Jenkins, J., Jewell, M., Leicester, N., OConnor, R.E., Jenkins, L., & Troutner, N.M. (1992). Accommodations for individual differences without classroom ability groups: An experiment in school restructuring. Exceptional Children, 60(4), 344-359.

[15] Cole, D.A., & Meyer, L.H. (1991). Social integration and severe disabilities: A longitudinal analysis of child outcomes. The Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 340 351.

[16] Ryndak, D.L., Downing, J.E., Morrison, A.P., & Williams, L.J. (1996). Parents perceptions of educational settings and services for children with moderate or severe disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 17, 106 118.

[17] Dugan, E., Kamps, D., Leonard, B., Watkins, N., Rehinberger, A., & Stackhaus, J. (1995). Effects of cooperative learning groups during social studies for students with autism and fourth-grade peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 175 188; Hunt, P., Staub, D., Alwell, M., & Goetz, L. (1994). Achievement by all students within the context of cooperative learning groups. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 290 301; Logan, K.R., Bakeman, R., & Keefe, E.B. (1997). Effects of instructional variables on engaged behavior of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional Children, 63, 481 198.

[18] Hunt, P. Farron-Davis, F., Beckstead, S., Curtis, D., & Goetz, L. (1994). Evaluating the effects of placement of students with severe disabilities in general education versus special classes. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19(3), 200 214.

[19] Orkwis, R. (1999). Curriculum access and universal design for learning. ERIC/OSEP Digest # E586, ERIC Reproduction Service No.: ED437767.

[20] Peltier, Gary L. (1997). The effect of inclusion on non-disabled children: A review of the research. Contemporary Education, 68 (4), 234 238; Staub, D. (1996). On inclusion and the other kids: Heres what research shows so far about inclusions effect on nondisabled students. Learning (September/October 1996), reprinted at http://www.edc.org/urban/.

[21] Hollowood, T.M., Salisbury, C.L., Rainforth, B., & Palombaro, M.M. (1995). Use of instructional time in classrooms serving students with and without severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 61, 242 253.

[22] Manset, G., & Semmel, M.I. (1997). Are inclusive programs for students with mild disabilities effective? A comparative review of model programs. Journal of Special Education, 31, 155 180.

[23] Lew, M., Mesch, D., Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R. (1986). Components of cooperative learning: Effects of collaborative skills and academic group contingencies on achievement and mainstreaming. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 229 239.

[24] E.g., Maheady, Sacca, & Harper, 1987, op. cit., and Mathur, S.R., & Rutherford, R.B. (1991). Peer-mediated interventions promoting social skills of children and youth with behavioral disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 14, 227 242.

[25] Hunt et al., 1994, op cit..

[26] Studies of preschool students: Odom, S.L., Deklyer, M., & Jenkins, J.R. (1984). Integrating handicapped and nonhandicapped preschoolers: Developmental impact on nonhandicapped children. Exceptional Children, 51, 41 48; and Bricker, D.D., Bruder, M.B., & Bailey, E. (1982). Developmental integration of preschool children. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 207 222. Study of school-aged students: Sharpe, M.N., York, J.L., & Knight, J. (1994). Effects of inclusion on the academic performance of classmates without disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 15, 281 287.

[27] Staub, D., Schwartz, I.L., Gallucci, C., & Peck, C.A. (1994). Four portraits of friendship at an inclusive school. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 314 325.

[28] Helmstetter, E., Peck, C.A., & Giangreco, M.F. (1994). Outcomes of interactions with peers with moderate or severe disabilities: A statewide survey of high school students. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19(4), 263 276; Stainback, W., Stainback, S., Moravec, J., & Jackson, H.J. (1992). Concerns about full inclusion: An ethnographic investigation. Included in Villa, R.A., Thousand, J.S., Eds. (1995) Creating an Inclusive School. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

[29] Evans, I.M., Salisbury, C., Palombaro, M., & Goldberg, J.S. (1994). Childrens perception of fairness in classroom and interpersonal situations involving peers with severe disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 326 332.

[30] E.g., Helmstetter, E., Peck, C.A., & Giangreco, M.F. (1994). Outcomes of interactions with peers with moderate or severe disabilities: A statewide survey of high school students. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 263 276; Peck, C.A., Donaldson, J., & Pezzoli, M. (1990). Some benefits adolescents perceive for themselves from their social relationships with peers who have severe disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15, 241 249.

[31] E.g. Giangreco, M., Edelman, S., Cloninger, C., & Dennis, R. (1993). My child has a classmate with severe disabilities: What parents of nondisabled children think about full inclusion. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 21, 77 91.

[32] Baines, L., Baines, C., & Masterson, C. (1994). Mainstreaming: One schools reality. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(1), 39 40.

[33] Zigmond, N., & Baker, J. (1995). Concluding comments: Current and future practices in inclusive schooling. The Journal of Special Education, 29 (2), 245 250.